1.
Intelligential, sensory-motor phases form (from birth to the age of 2)
In
this phase, child’s behavior is principally based on movement. A child is
unable to make out the events because of his internal (psychological)
conditions. Although a child’s cognitive development is taking place within him
in the form of patterns, he is unable to think in conceptual manner.
2.
Preoperational phase of thought (age of 2 to 7)
The
features of this phase are the development of language and other symbolic forms
(presentations), as well as rapid conceptual development. Furthermore,
reasoning or intellection is semi-logical in this phase.
3.
Phase of sensory-operation (age of 7 to 11)
In
this phase, child develops within himself, the power of applying logical
thoughts to his sensory experiences.
4.
Phase of formal operation (abstraction) (age of 11 to 15)
In
this phase, cognitive structures will reach the highest level of development,
and child is capable of applying logical reasoning to all his various
experiences and problems. (source B, 1963).[i]
In
one of his books, Piaget describes the interrelation modes of various phases as
follows:
“In
general, it should be emphasized that behavioral patterns, peculiar to each
phase do not succeed one after another, in a sense that the former pattern has
to disappear before the latter pattern can succeed the former. On the contrary,
the latter pattern is added to the former in the shape of layers of a pyramid,
either in an upward or downward direction, for the purpose of their completion,
rectification, or synthesization (source C, 1952).[ii]
The
author of the book entitled, Piaget's Theory of Cognitive & Affectional
Development describes Piaget’s outlook both on the intelligence or reason,
and on its cognitive and affectional aspects. In Piaget’s opinion, the
cognitive aspect consists of three parts: i.e. content, function, and
structure. Piaget suggests three kinds of knowledge: i.e. (a) knowledge of
characteristics of objects, which is resulted from actions on objects; (b)
knowledge of logic-mathematics, which has been built up on the outcome of
actions on objects; (c) social knowledge which is related to objects born of
culture. Any kind of knowledge is dependent upon an action, whether
physical or psychological. Measures that are instrumental in the process of
development, are those that affect the equilibrium which, in turn, gives rise
to efforts conducive to the return of that equilibrium. Gravitation and
adaptation are factors of perfect balance which of themselves help the process
of development.
To
help the process of development take place, four factors and their interactions
are required: Perfect development, active experience, social interaction, and
equilibrium. Intellectual or cognitive development, as a permanent process, may
be classified into four categories for the purpose of its appreciation and
analysis. Affectional development (of emotions, feelings, and desires) is
created in the same manner as intellectual development. In other words,
affectional structures are created in the same manner as intellectual
structures. Emotions are responsible for the stimulation or activation of
intellectual activities, and they occur on objects and events.[iii]
(pp. 31-32)
A few points about intellectual
development in sensory-motor phase
At
the time of birth, child’s behavior is a reflective one. In the second month,
he recognizes simple differences between the objects that are present in the
surrounding environment within his reach. From 6th to 8th month, the acts of
seeing and touching are harmonized for the first time. At the end of the first
year, he will have knowledge not only of stability of objects, but also of
himself, and of other objects causing events to occur. Two or several
behavioral patterns are harmonized to solve current problems. At the end of the
2nd year, child is able to present objects and events in his imagination.
Piaget believes that, in this phase, child creates physical knowledge. Child’s
intellectual development in sensory-motor phase occurs in consequence of his
action on environment. His action is spontaneous. He acts from internal motive.
Organization and concordance of gravitation and adaptation processes bring
about qualitative and quantitative changes in behavioral patterns.
It is to be
noted that intellectual development is a self-regulating process. Processes of
gravitation and adaptation are controlled from within and not externally.
Moreover, intellectual development presupposes adaptation.
A few points on
intellectual development in preoperational phase
Qualitatively,
intellectual development in preoperational phase is more advanced as compared
to sensory-motor phase,. In this phase, thinking becomes a matter of routine.
Successions of behavioral patterns are mostly determined and performed in the
head rather than on physical events. Sense perception, however, dominates
reasoning. Power of language develops rapidly during the ages of two to four.
Child’s behavior in this period is more personal than social.
During the ages
of six to seven, children’s conversations will be of a more communicative and
social nature. In this period, thinking process is under the control of the
existing environment as well as sense perception.
Intellectual reasoning with
cognition at the level of preoperational phase is semi-logical. Child’s
understanding of laws, justice, and of other norms of moral reasoning is
semi-logical as well.
A few points on intellectual
development during the phase of sensory operation
The phase of sensory operations is a
temporary one which exists between preoperational thinking and formal (logical)
thinking. In this period, a child, for the first time, is enabled to make use
of logical operations. Thinking process is no longer dominated by sense
perception. Hence, child is able to solve existing sensory problems that he has
experienced. Child’s thinking is not personal during this phase like
preoperational phase. Children are capable of entertaining other ideas during
the phase of sensory-operations. Conversational language has social and
communicative aspects. Children are able to make their sense perceptions appropriate, and take note of transformations.
Moreover, regression of thinking as well as two significant intellectual
operations, i.e. systematic arrangement, and classification that constitute the
basis of numerical concepts, will take place during this period. Development of
will-power enables regulation of affectional reasoning to become possible.
Independence, reasoning, and affection in social relations, which encourage
mutual respect will continue to exist. Child increasingly evaluates
controversial ideas and does not admit unilateral thoughts. This process leads
to his conscious decision making and consideration of motives when expressing
his ideas. Development of moral concepts such as those regarding rules and
regulations, lying, coincidences, and justice is observed in children.
A few points
on intellectual development during the phase of formal operation
Formal operations that usually begin
at the age of 12 and are completed at the age of 16 and thereafter are based on
sensory operations which expand the
development process of the former through synthesization. While thinking
governs logico-sensory -reflective operations, it is confined to sensory world.
With the development of formal operations, reasoning is released from the bonds
of content and sensory impressions. Formal reasoning is capable of confronting
possible, probable, and real affairs.
Practical-sensory
thinking is a reciprocal thinking. Reciprocity and regression operate
independently. These two kinds of process are coordinated in formal thinking.
During formal operations, several
structures appear in the mind. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning of faculty of
intellection deals with hypothetical and objective matters, and with the
ability to infer consequences from hypothetical antecedents. The act of
scientific-inductive thinking is a kind of inference from the particular to the
general. This kind of thinking is usually peculiar to scientists. Formal
intellection examines all probable relations within the framework of sensory
and hypothetical problems. Intellectual abstraction is abstraction of new
knowledge from the existing one, which has been acquired through thinking.
Intellectual abstraction journeys ahead of noticeable affairs and is regarded
as primary instrument of logico-mathematical knowledge.
During
formal operations, two fundamental contents are originated, i.e. propositional
or synthetical, and practico-formal patterns. Propositional reasoning is
similar to common propositional logic. This kind of operations is abstract and
systematic. Practico-formal patterns such as proportionality and probability are
more similar to scientific reasoning. They are less abstract as compared to
propositional reasoning. Piaget believes that all ordinary people possess the
ability to perform formal operations during adolescence and manhood.
Development of normative feelings, independence, and will–power during the
process of sensory operations leads to formation of the structure of ideal
feelings and to further development of personality during the process of formal
operations. Formation of personality in a
child is rooted in the system of his own self-made regulations and
values. Personality reflects individual’s efforts to adapt himself to the
social world of adulthood. This is attained to a certain extent by “subjecting”
himself to self-discipline.[iv]
Mulla Sadra’s views on soul-body
relation
Considering
the nature of the soul, Mulla Sadra suggests[v]
that the soul, primarily, possesses a bodily aspect, but based on
trans-substantial motion (al-هarakat
al-jawhariyyah) and in line with the development of the soul, it takes up
psychological and intellectual aspect.
Contrary
to positivist psychologists who confine all human activities to the activities
of the senses, Piaget takes notice of intellectual activities performed from
the very beginning of bodily development, and discusses sense perceptions along
with intellectual perceptions.
Concerning
perceptual forms, Mulla Sadra says:[vi]
“As we reasoned, the sensible, to anyone who senses it, is the very immaterial
perceptive form that is existent in the matter of an object”.
According
to the above remark, Mulla Sadra considers that form, ensued from man’s
encounter with external objects, is immaterial.
Also
in his dialogue with Brangue,[vii]
and in reply to a question raised by the latter, Piaget stresses the importance
of external factors (i.e. environment) and internal factors as follows:
They
are both of equal significance, and are inseparable. It is the recognition of
an interaction between man and object. I believe, however, that man can not be
confined in a strict structure forever and in a state of anticipated anxiety,
on the assumption that everything has been predetermined in his mind. I believe
that man builds up his own recognition, and his own structures, which will be
discussed by us later on.[viii]
He says in another part of the same
book:
An
object is a limit in mathematical sense. Man is constantly getting closer to
the outer self of an object, but he will not be able to reach its inner self.
The object which man has assumed to reach is invariably the object that has
been imagined and interpreted by his experimental intelligence (intellect).[ix]
With
regard to an approach to structuralism, he adds elsewhere: “Yes it is so,
absolutely so. Recognition is neither a copy of an object, nor an advance
warning about forms predetermined in experiments. Biologically speaking, it is
rather a constant formation ensuing from reciprocation both between organisms
and environment, and between thought and object epistemologically.
Mulla
Sadra says:[x]
And
reason demonstrates that the perceiver of particular forms which are created in
the senses, is neither a sense, nor a sensory instrument; it is rather the very
soul itself.
Concerning
the levels of the soul, he adds:[xi]
And when a child is born of his mother,
his soul is at the level of animal soul, or at the beginning of external
maturation. He is, at this stage, a human animal in actuality, whereas he is
potentially a psychical human. Then his soul becomes perceiver of objects, as a
result of thoughts and observations that are applied to practical intellect.
However, this same procedure subsists till the early part of spiritual
maturation.
With
regard to the faculties of imagination, estimation, and remembrance, he
considers the distinction between the faculty of estimation and that of
intellect (‘aql) to be lying in the relation of intellect to particular
agent, and does not regard same opposed to intellect. “It is to be noted
that we believe the faculty of estimation to be different from the faculties
mentioned before, and that it neither has essence, nor is it in opposition to
intellect. It rather involves the relation of intellectual essence to
particular entity, and the dependence of the former upon the latter, and the
management of particular affairs. Therefore, the faculty which is dependent
upon the faculty of imagination is, indeed, the faculty of estimation, just as
what are perceived by the faculty of estimation are the very general meanings
that are related to the forms of imaginary entities. Furthermore, faculty of
estimation lacks any essence other than intellect, in just the same way that
natural universal and essence, by virtue of their realities, are other than
external or intellectual being”.[xii]
Note:
[i].
Wadsworth J. Barry, 1989, 4th ed. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive & Affective
Development, Longman, New York & London, p. 25.
Ginslurg
P. Herbert & Sylvia Opper, 1988, 3rd Ed., Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual
Development, by Prentice Hall, A Division of Simon & Schuster Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
Beringia
Clude, translators: Dr M. Mansur, Dr P. Dadsetan, Fall 1986, Free Disputes with
Jean Piaget, published by Hadaf co. Tehran, pp. 31-32.
[iv].
M. M. Dadsetan, 1988, Piaget’s Outlook on the Ground of Psychological
Development, enclosed with functional experiments in genetic and clinical
researches, Darya Public., Tehran.
[viii]. Mullà sadrà, 1383 H. Q. al-إikmat
al-muta’àliyah fi ’l-asfàr al-‘aqliyyah al-arba‘ah, 3rd section from the 1st
journey, Dar al –Marrif al-Islamiyah co., Tehran.
[ix].
Mullà sadrà, 1383 H. Q. al-إikmat al-muta‘àliyah fi ’l-asfàr al-‘aqliyah al-araba‘ah,
3rd section from the 4th journey, Dar al – ihyyah al-turth al-Arabi, Beirut.
*Mullà sadrà
applies the same point to vision and imagination. In the 8th section, 1st ch.,
he asserts, “It seems you know that vision conceives sights not through
descriptive definition of forms in the external world only. The faculty of
imagination also perceives forms and corporeal souls, but not through the
impression of those forms on intellect.
Notes :
[1].
Wadsworth J. Barry, 1989, 4th ed. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive & Affective
Development, Longman, New York & London, p. 25.
[1].
Ibid.
Ginslurg
P. Herbert & Sylvia Opper, 1988, 3rd Ed., Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual
Development, by Prentice Hall, A Division of Simon & Schuster Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
[1].
Ibid.
Beringia
Clude, translators: Dr M. Mansur, Dr P. Dadsetan, Fall 1986, Free Disputes with
Jean Piaget, published by Hadaf co. Tehran, pp. 31-32.
[1].
M. M. Dadsetan, 1988, Piaget’s Outlook on the Ground of Psychological
Development, enclosed with functional experiments in genetic and clinical
researches, Darya Public., Tehran.
[1].
1st part from the 4th journey, p. 347.
[1].
4th section, 8th ch., p. 192.
[1].
Free Disputes with Jean Piaget, Persian translation.
[1]. Mullà sadrà,
1383 H. Q. al-إikmat al-muta’àliyah fi ’l-asfàr
al-‘aqliyyah al-arba‘ah, 3rd section from the 1st journey, Dar al –Marrif
al-Islamiyah co., Tehran.
[1].
Mullà sadrà, 1383 H. Q. al-إikmat al-muta‘àliyah fi ’l-asfàr al-‘aqliyah al-araba‘ah,
3rd section from the 4th journey, Dar al – ihyyah al-turth al-Arabi, Beirut.
[1].
Fي qà‘idah
nastaelum minhà ta‘adud al-qawi, ch. 5, p. 66.
[1].
Ibid, ch. 10, p. 136.
[1].
Ibid, ch. 3, pp. 215-216.
*Mullà sadrà applies the same point to vision and
imagination. In the 8th section, 1st ch., he asserts, “It seems you know that
vision conceives sights not through descriptive definition of forms in the
external world only. The faculty of imagination also perceives forms and
corporeal souls, but not through the impression of those forms on intellect.
A Comparison between the Ideas of
Mulla Sadra and those of Piaget in Psychology by Ali
Shariatmadari
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